Publications
Here are the highlighted publications from Dr. Martinez. Look for new publications from the lab soon!
The role of astrocytes in the nucleus tractus solitarii in maintaining central control of autonomic function
The nucleus tractus solitarii (nTS) is the first central site for the termination and integration of autonomic and respiratory sensory information. Sensory afferents terminating in the nTS as well as the embedded nTS neurocircuitry release and utilize glutamate that is critical for maintenance of baseline cardiorespiratory parameters and initiating cardiorespiratory reflexes, including those activated by bouts of hypoxia. nTS astrocytes contribute to synaptic and neuronal activity through a variety of mechanisms, including gliotransmission and regulation of glutamate in the extracellular space via membrane-bound transporters. Here, we aim to highlight recent evidence for the role of astrocytes within the nTS and their regulation of autonomic and cardiorespiratory processes under normal and hypoxic conditions.
Loss of excitatory amino acid transporter restraint following chronic intermittent hypoxia contributes to synaptic alterations in nucleus tractus solitarii
Peripheral viscerosensory afferent signals are transmitted to the nucleus tractus solitarii (nTS) via release of glutamate. Following release, glutamate is removed from the extrasynaptic and synaptic cleft via excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs), thus limiting glutamate receptor activation or over activation, and maintaining its working range. We have shown that EAAT block with the antagonist threo-β-benzyloxyaspartic acid (TBOA) depolarized nTS neurons and increased spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic current (sEPSC) frequency yet reduced the amplitude of afferent (TS)-evoked EPSCs (TS-EPSCs). Interestingly, chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH), a model of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), produces similar synaptic responses as EAAT block. We hypothesized EAAT expression or function are downregulated after CIH, and this reduction in glutamate removal contributes to the observed neurophysiological responses. To test this hypothesis, we used brain slice electrophysiology and imaging of glutamate release and TS-afferent Ca2+ to compare nTS properties of rats exposed to 10 days of normoxia (Norm; 21%O2) or CIH. Results show that EAAT blockade with (3S)-3-[[3-[[4-(trifluoromethyl)benzoyl]-amino]phenyl]methoxy]-l-aspartic acid (TFB-TBOA) in Norm caused neuronal depolarization, generation of an inward current, and increased spontaneous synaptic activity. The latter augmentation was eliminated by inclusion of tetrodotoxin in the perfusate. TS stimulation during TFB-TBOA also elevated extracellular glutamate and decreased presynaptic Ca2+ and TS-EPSC amplitude. In CIH, the effects of EAAT block are eliminated or attenuated. CIH reduced EAAT expression in nTS, which may contribute to the attenuated function seen in this condition. Therefore, CIH reduces EAAT influence on synaptic and neuronal activity, which may lead to the physiological consequences seen in OSA and CIH.
Short-term synaptic dynamics control the activity phase of neurons in an oscillatory network
In oscillatory systems, neuronal activity phase is often independent of network frequency. Such phase maintenance requires adjustment of synaptic input with network frequency, a relationship that we explored using the crab, Cancer borealis, pyloric network. The burst phase of pyloric neurons is relatively constant despite a > two fold variation in network frequency. We used noise input to characterize how input shape influences burst delay of a pyloric neuron, and then used dynamic clamp to examine how burst phase depends on the period, amplitude, duration, and shape of rhythmic synaptic input. Phase constancy across a range of periods required a proportional increase of synaptic duration with period. However, phase maintenance was also promoted by an increase of amplitude and peak phase of synaptic input with period. Mathematical analysis shows how short-term synaptic plasticity can coordinately change amplitude and peak phase to maximize the range of periods over which phase constancy is achieved.
Short Term Synaptic Plasticity in Central Pattern Generators
The understanding of CPGs in producing motor behaviors has been greatly advanced through the use of computational models. Almost all synapses are regulated by a variety of short- or long-term activity-dependent processes that alter the strength of the synapse. Depending on the behavioral needs, CPGs alter their rhythmic activity patterns by changing the cycle frequency and the relative activity phases of the participating neurons. Synapses in CPG networks are naturally subject to short-term activity-dependent modifications due to the rhythmic nature of the network output. This review examines the mechanisms and consequences of short-term changes in synaptic strength within CPGs. Although both pre- and postsynaptic mechanisms have been implicated in short-term plasticity, the majority of known STP effects are presynaptic.